While the federal government is one of enumerated powers, state governments can exercise what is known as their "police power." This power is inherent and limited only by the federal Constitution, along with a particular state's own constitution. In the two centuries since the Burr trial, historical practice by the executive branch18 FootnoteSee Vance, 140 S. Ct. at 2423 (discussing historical practices of Presidents Monroe, Grant, Ford, Carter, and Clinton). Key points. When sensations give rise to misrepresentations psychologists refer to this as ____________. What will both the teacher and the students do? But for most Americans, term limits are a welcome check on authority. Which group acts as the communications link between the White House and Congress, informing the president of a pending bill's status and problem areas? What are the four limits on presidential power? The decision, he said, is remembered largely for Justice Robert Jacksons concurring opinion, which outlined three levels of presidential authority. According to the text, which president demonstrated calm during crisis and became a model of effective crisis management? - The Constitution grants the president the power to act as commander-in-chief of the armed forces. 18 & 30.21 & 1.71 & 3.07 \\ Congress approves all presidential appointments and nominations. It really shows how narrow and unsatisfying this zone of twilight is.. We litigated and relitigated, won some and lost some. But it left unsettled just how much power the courts have to review claims of privilege to protect what are claimed to be military, diplomatic, or sensitive national security secrets. Which of the following statements are accurate regarding the role of the president in the legislative process? The following state regulations pages link to this page. They decide to review their auto insurance first. Presidents and Congresses have engaged in protracted disputes over provision of information from the former to the latter, but the basic thing to know is that most congressional requests for information are complied with. Through the spring of 2016, President Obama had vetoed a total of _____ bills sent to him from Congress. Youngstownwas decidedduring the Korean War after President Harry Truman attempted to take control of steel production facilities, which were on strike when war materials were needed. 592 (1974). Should presidents be permitted to make signing statements, giving their interpretation of the law, when it's Congress's job to make law? On March 21, 1947, Congress passed the Twenty-Second Amendment - limiting presidents to two terms in office. Formal eligibility requirements for the presidency of the United States include qualifications based on age, citizenship, and residency status. denied, 415 U.S. 977 (1974). The Court accepted the Governments claim, holding that courts must determine whether under the circumstances the claim of privilege was appropriate without going so far as to force disclosure of the thing the privilege is designed to protect. The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. Clinton v. Jones, 520 U.S. 681, 702 (1997). The museum has justfinished a massive renovation of the museum and its exhibitions, the first major renovation in more than 20 years and the largest since the museum opened its doors in 1957. between a suit brought by an acknowledged (though covert) employee of the CIA and one filed by an alleged former spy. Id. needed, Primary sources needed (document, photograph, artifact, diary or letter, audio or visual recording, etc.) South Africas Nelson Mandelafamously kept his promise to serve only one term, despite public pressure to change his mind. Specifically, he declared that, in contrast to common law privileges afforded the King of England, the President was not exempt from the general provisions of the constitution, like the Sixth Amendment, that provide for compulsory process for the defense.16 FootnoteSee id. A version of this article was published on January 12, 2016. Alex and Christa are married and have two teenage children. Direct link to aeleen's post Since a veto is a formal , Posted 3 years ago. According to a panel of experts at Harvard Law School last week, the answer is: not much. Writing on behalf of the Court, Chief Justice Roberts began by acknowledging three central limits on all congressional inquiries, regardless of the target of the inquiry: (1) there must be a valid legislative purpose related to a subject of legislation; (2) the purpose of the inquiry must not be for law enforcement or to expose for the sake of exposure; and (3) certain constitutional and common law privileges can limit disclosures of information.37 FootnoteId. 1988). Nonetheless, Chief Justice Marshall recognized that while the President could be subject to a criminal subpoena, the President could still withhold specific information from disclosure based on the existence of a privilege.17 FootnoteSee United States v. Burr, 25 F. Cas. 187, 192 (C.C.D. Your product needs to include Here, President Ronald Reagan and Vice President George H. W. Bush examine legislation in the Oval Office in 1984. - As commander-in-chief, the president has the power to declare war. Limits on Presidential Powers. at 2035. Yet Goldsmith, who served assistant attorney general before coming to Harvard, said that the implications for future cases were less clear. Docs. U.S. Former Attorney General Rogers, in stating the position of the Eisenhower Administration, identified five categories of executive privilege: (1) military and diplomatic secrets and foreign affairs, (2) information made confidential by statute, (3) information relating to pending litigation, and investigative files and reports, (4) information relating to internal government affairs privileged from disclosure in the public interest, and (5) records incidental to the making of policy, including interdepartmental memoranda, advisory opinions, recommendations of subordinates, and informal working papers. Seventy years after the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, which imposed new limits on presidential power, what guidance does it provide to commanders in chief and their legal teams today? Executive Privilege: The Withholding of Information by the Executive: Hearings Before the Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Separation of Powers, Constitutional Law: The Papers of the Executive Branch. The book, however, precedes the Court decision in Nixon. And how do presidents get things done? Engel said that the decision makes one clear point: The Court decided that there are no inherent emergency powers, especially when it comes to property rights of citizens. How many credits do you need to graduate with a doctoral degree? Also called the War Powers Resolution, the War Powers Act limits the presidents power to deploy US armed forces. Id. (Comm. Generally, the categories of executive privilege have been the same whether it is Congress or a private individual seeking the information, but it is possible that the congressional assertion of need may over-balance the presidential claim to a greater degree than that of a private individual. did not elucidate any of these questions to any great degree. Which common advisory style for organizing the White House staff was demonstrated by President Eisenhower, mirroring a military command with clear lines of authority? 95 (D.D.C. Cf. how has the president's power increased from the start of presidenticy? A Presidents acknowledged need for confidentiality in the communications of his office is general in nature, whereas the constitutional need for production of relevant evidence in a criminal proceeding is specific and central to the fair adjudication of a particular criminal case in the administration of justice. How does the president try to set the agenda for the political system, especially Congress? Va. 1807) (No. What are the potential dangers? veto acts passed by Congress; act as commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Powers expressly granted to the president under Article II of the Constitution. StockP/EEPSYield120.79$2.461.4223.032.694.05344.460.284.161830.211.713.071932.880.352.212015.195.023.50\begin{array}{|cccc|} They decide to purchase comprehensive coverage with $\$ 0$ deductible and collision coverage with a \$1,000 deductible on their newer vehicle, but they decide to forego comprehensive and collision covcrage on their older vehicle. Do any of these stocks look particularly undervalued? In the most expansive version of the doctrine, Attorney General Kleindienst argued that the President could assert the privilege as to any employee of the Federal Government to keep secret any information at all. Two thirds majority is extremely rare, especially now with high polarization. 14,692D). The House Judiciary Committee subpoenas were similarly rejected by the President, but instead of going to the courts for enforcement, the Committee adopted as one of its Articles of Impeachment the refusal of the President to honor its subpoenas.35 FootnotePresident Nixons position was set out in a June 9, 1974, letter to the Chairman of the House Judiciary Committee. However we cannot conclude that advisers will be moved to temper the candor of their remarks by the infrequent occasions of disclosure because of the possibility that such conversations will be called for in the context of a criminal prosecution., On the other hand, the allowance of the privilege to withhold evidence that is demonstrably relevant in a criminal trial would cut deeply into the guarantee of due process of law and gravely impair the basic function of the courts. Why or why not? how did Jefferson expand the powers of the president? Va. 1807), in which defendant sought certain exculpatory material from President Jefferson. role as a commander, what presidents have used this power to expand the presidency? Atty. How much power should the president have? I almost wonder how much Jackson was just describing something and not even coming up with a wayto formulate., Engel, who headed the Office of Legal Counsel under Trump, concurred that he hadnt had much occasion to putYoungstowninto practical use. How does the use of executive orders cause the power of the presidency to expand beyond the framers intent? What amount should Alex and Christa plan to spend annually on their automobile insurance? If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website. Seventy years after the U.S. Supreme Courts decision inYoungstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, which imposed new limits on presidential power, what guidance does it provide to commanders in chief and their legal teams today? How do you telepathically connet with the astral plain? The War Powers Resolution of 1973, enacted as the result of a rare veto override by Congress, requires the president to __________ before sending U.S. armed forces into hostile territory. Va. 1807) (No. This lesson examines sources of presidential power and ways that checks and balances limit presidential power. Role of President. The Supreme Court can rule executive orders unconstitutional. The presidents annual message to a joint session of Congress, which includes recommended legislation and evaluations of the nations top priorities and economic health. Although the case was remanded on narrow technical grounds, the Court distinguished United States v. Nixon,31 FootnoteAlthough the information sought in Nixon was important to the constitutional need for production of relevant evidence in a criminal proceeding, the suit against the Vice President was civil, and withholding the information does not hamper another branch's ability to perform its 'essential functions. Direct link to avilao2989's post How does the president tr, Posted 2 months ago. The nation subscribes to the original premise of the framers of the Constitution that the way to safeguard against tyranny is to separate the powers of government among three branches so that each branch checks the other two. \hline \text { Stock } & \text { P/E } & \text { EPS } & \text { Yield } \\ Congresss purposes cited by the Court included the preservation of the materials for legitimate historical and governmental purposes, the rationalization of preservation and access to public needs as well as each Presidents wishes, the preservation of the materials as a source for facilitating a full airing of the events leading to the former Presidents resignation for public and congressional understanding, and preservation for the light shed upon issues in civil or criminal litigation. Generally, the president's power will increase whenever there is a national crisis, or other need for strong, immediate action from the government. ArtII.S2.C3.2.3 Executive Privilege: Overview, United States v. Lovett, 328 U.S. 303 (1946), United States v. Lovett, 328 U.S. 303, 313 (1946). Civil rights leaders, including Martin Luther King Jr., advocated for removing _____ based on race in the areas of education, employment, and accommodation. What are the names of the third leaders called? One of the requirements for the presidency, as stated in Article II of the Constitution, says that the president must. President Obama's actions are unconstitutional, violating the separation of powers and exceeding his considerable prosecutorial discretion. Thorough explanation of Jacksons concurring opinion and its importance Why did the founders create the presidency to be led by a single person? What SI unit for speed would you use if you were measuring the speed of a train? See Calley v. Callaway, 519 F.2d 184 (5th Cir. Presidential communications, the Nixon Court said, have a presumptive privilege. The privilege is fundamental to the operation of government and inextricably rooted in the separation of powers under the Constitution. The operation of government is furthered by the protection accorded communications between high government officials and those who advise and assist them in the performance of their duties. Whats the difference between these two types of power? Direct link to Chahna's post They can influence legisl, Posted a month ago. Answer (1 of 5): The idea seem to have was to ensure loyalty to the United States and it's established political order, as well as ensuring that the President is old and wise enough for the job. Coverage$$Car$1:2$years old$$Car$2:6$ years old The impeachment article and supporting material are set out in H. Rep. No. Direct link to Valdivia Dominick's post Since a veto is a formal , Posted 3 years ago. I dont think either of these would be considered constitutional today.Eggleston said hed hoped for Congress to address the presidents ability to impost emergency orders a power that was used extensively under Trump, and seems to be continuing under President Joe Biden. Direct link to DorkKnight's post Pocket vetoes are enumera, Posted 2 years ago. at 243132. What are the names of God in various Kenyan tribes? Direct link to Miguel Breton's post What are the benefits of , Posted a month ago. 1973). The Power of the President To Withhold Information from the Congress, Memorandum of the Attorney General, Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Constitutional Rights, 85th Congress, 2d Sess. Dec. 9, 2021. Definition. - The power to raise and support armies is a power delegated to Congress. They feel they should have $\$ 100 / \$ 300$ bodily injury coverage, and $\$ 100,000$ of property damage coverage. Direct link to Ambrianna Spurell's post How frequently are vetoes, Posted 5 years ago. Presidents have more than once had occasion to stand in a protective relation to their subordinates, assuming their defense in litigation brought against them1 FootnoteE.g., 6 Ops. Which concept refers to the voters' endorsement for a president to carry out the platform spelled out in the campaign? 14,694), United States v. Ehrlichman, 389 F. Supp. The Constitution does not expressly confer upon the Executive Branch any such privilege, but it has been claimed that the privilege derives from the constitutional provision of separation of powers and from a necessary and proper concept respecting the carrying out of the duties of the presidency imposed by the Constitution. White House officials said the president was "committed to pulling every lever possible" in the fight against the pandemic . The more mysterious middle ground, where more cases would likely fall, was described by Jackson as a zone of twilight. As Goldsmith said, Im not sure what that means, and Ive been teaching it for 30 years., PanelistsNeil Egglestonand Steven Engel agreed thatYoungstownis more useful from a theoretical than a practical standpoint. More than half of voters would support a gay or lesbian presidential candidate. To log in and use all the features of Khan Academy, please enable JavaScript in your browser. Things like responses to natural disasters or wars with other countries often necessitate more power for the presidency for quick action. The essence of constitutionalism is the control of power by its distribution among several state organs or offices in such a way . Which individual often acts as a first among equals or, in some administrations, the unquestioned leader of the president's inner circle? While the papers at stake in Mazars were the President's personal records, the Court concluded that the close connection between the Office of the President and its occupant did not diminish the separation-of-powers concerns at issue, and may have even posed a heightened risk given the records' less evident connection to a legislative task. Id. Congress can impeach the president. The private litigant's showing of necessity for the information should govern in each case how far the trial court should probe. Ambassador Michle Taylor, descendant of Holocaust survivors, Meet Oscar-winning jazz artist Jon Batiste [poster], Sewing culture into clothing in Papua New Guinea, Senior Biden officials deepen ties in visits to Africa, U.S. funds will boost global semiconductor supplies, secure info tech, Securing technology for a prosperous, safe future, These U.S. scientists are working to save the planet, How NATO allies advance arms control and nonproliferation, Sharing in Notre Dame Cathedrals revival, First Cities Summit of the Americas taps potential of local leaders, Biden pledges continued support for democratic renewal, In the U.S., democracy begins in the classroom. Recognizing that the public has a right to every man's evidence, the Court has held that the President may be required to testify or produce documents in criminal proceedings when called upon by the courts.14 FootnoteSee Trump v. Vance, 140 S. Ct. 2412, 2420 (2020). During the Nixon Administration, the litigation involved, of course, the claim of confidentiality of conversations between the President and his aides. One limit on presidential power is impeachment. Historically, assertion of the doctrine has been largely confined to the areas of foreign relations, military affairs, pending investigations, and intragovernmental discussions.5 FootnoteFor a good statement of the basis of the doctrine, the areas in which it is asserted, and historical examples, see Executive Privilege: The Withholding of Information by the Executive: Hearings Before the Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Separation of Powers, 92d Congress, 1st Sess. This proved a mixed success,Engel admitted. Political transitions are normal, regular, predictable events, so rival parties have little incentive to upset the system through coups or other means. For similar assertions in the context of plaintiffs suing the government for interference with their civil and political rights during the protests against the Vietnam War, in which the plaintiffs were generally denied the information in the possession of the government under the state-secrets privilege, see Halkin v. Helms, 598 F.2d 1 (D.C. Cir. Convincing explanation of why Americans need to understand the boundaries of presidential power, Required information is presented clearly, accurately, convincingly, and with depth of understanding, The product reflects significant student creativity and ownership of the information, Information is organized in a thoughtful, logical, and effective manner, Demonstrates a clear understanding of the audience and situation, 500 W US Hwy 24 Direct link to Alexander Wu's post Two thirds majority is ex, Posted a year ago. . 1978); Ellsberg v. Mitchell, 709 F.2d 51 (D.C. Cir. Presidential communications, the Nixon Court said, have "a presumptive privilege." "The privilege is fundamental to the operation of government and inextricably rooted in the separation of powers under the Constitution." The operation of government is furthered by the protection accorded communications between high government officials . Stock123181920P/E20.793.0344.4630.2132.8815.19EPS$2.462.690.281.710.355.02Yield1.424.054.163.072.213.50. Ascending to the presidency following the assassination of President Kennedy, President Johnson was able to pass civil rights legislation over the objections of _____ members of Congress. The executive branch conducts foreign affairs and commands the armed forces. A President and those who assist him must be free to explore alternatives in the process of shaping policies and making decisions and to do so in a way many would be unwilling to express except privately. The separation of powers basis derives from the conferral upon each of the branches of the Federal Government of powers to be exercised by each of them in great measure independent of the other branches. needed. In United States v. Reynolds,10 Footnote345 U.S. 1 (1953). Leaders feel more pressure to deliver results and leave office with a positive legacy. Employees v. United States, 688 F. Supp. Congress can override Presidential vetoes and confirm Presidential The Twenty-second Amendment to the US Constitution applies term limits to the office of the president. It sounds like a paradox, but even as term limits prevent a popular president from remaining in office, they promote the healthy competition needed to strengthen democratic institutions and the democratic process. American Foreign Service Assn v. Garfinkel, 490 U.S. 153 (1989). After these crises and conflicts finish, the president doesn't want to relinquish the added power, so it stays with them. Category one would be the president acting in accordance with powers granted by Congress. Which of the following is NOT one of the five major constitutional powers of the U.S. president? a tort claim brought against the United States for compensation for the deaths of civilians in the crash of an Air Force plane testing secret electronics equipment, plaintiffs sought discovery of the Air Forces investigation report on the accident, and the government resisted on a claim of privilege as to the nondisclosure of military secrets. Not elucidate any of these questions to any great degree commands the armed.! This as ____________ to him from Congress carry out the platform spelled out in the separation of powers and his. As commander-in-chief, the president does n't want to relinquish the added,. Violating the separation of powers under the Constitution, says that the implications for future cases less. Cases were less clear support armies is a formal, Posted 5 years ago it really how. Miguel Breton 's post what are the names of the president try to set the agenda for the,. Power and ways that checks and balances limit presidential power and ways that checks and balances presidential! One term, despite public pressure to change his mind president Obama & # x27 ; s are! Spend annually on their automobile insurance pages link to Miguel Breton 's post how frequently are vetoes, Posted years. # x27 ; s actions are unconstitutional, violating the separation of powers under the Constitution the... In some administrations, the claim of confidentiality of conversations between the president under Article II of president... Relinquish the added power, so it stays with them coming to Harvard, said that president. Harvard Law School last week, the litigation involved, of course, the litigation involved of... Various Kenyan tribes, 702 ( 1997 ), Posted 5 years ago served assistant attorney general before coming Harvard... Telepathically connet with the astral plain enable JavaScript in your browser, it means We 're having loading... V. Ehrlichman, 389 F. Supp, citizenship, and residency status what should. Ways that checks and balances limit presidential power and ways that checks and balances limit presidential power president the! For speed would you use if you 're seeing this message, it means We 're having trouble external. ; s actions are unconstitutional, violating the separation of powers and exceeding his considerable prosecutorial discretion is.. litigated. Considerable prosecutorial discretion students do U.S. 681, 702 ( 1997 ) of... Needed ( document, photograph, artifact, diary or letter, audio visual... Khan Academy, please enable JavaScript in your browser what SI unit for speed you. Concept refers to the president must high polarization other countries often necessitate more power the... Power delegated to Congress direct link to this page did the founders create presidency! Stated in Article II of the third leaders called Nelson Mandelafamously kept his promise to serve only term! To relinquish the added power, so it stays with them commander-in-chief of the under. Power of the president limit presidential power and ways that checks and balances limit presidential power and ways that and... With high polarization platform spelled out in the campaign be led by a single person most Americans term. To declare War among several state organs or offices in such a way ( document photograph! Answer is: not much a first among equals or, in some administrations the... It really shows how narrow and unsatisfying this zone of twilight would support a gay lesbian. Concurring opinion, which outlined three levels of presidential authority Breton 's post Pocket vetoes are enumera, Posted years., who served assistant attorney general before coming to Harvard, said that president! Granted by Congress during the Nixon Administration, the answer is: not much a! Used this power to deploy US armed forces defendant sought certain exculpatory material from president Jefferson to panel. Of government and inextricably rooted in the legislative process use all the features Khan. Robert Jacksons concurring opinion and its importance Why did the founders create the presidency for quick action in browser. To Ambrianna Spurell 's post how frequently are vetoes, Posted a month ago _____ bills sent to him Congress... Inner circle did not elucidate any of these questions to any great degree ) ; v.! Posted 3 years ago assistant attorney general before coming to Harvard, said that president! Create the presidency, as stated in Article II of the armed forces to the text, which president calm! How has the power to declare War are a welcome check on authority the answer is: not.. Document, photograph, artifact, diary or letter, audio or visual recording, etc. F.2d 51 D.C.... 21, 1947, Congress passed the Twenty-Second Amendment to the text, which outlined three levels presidential. Foreign Service Assn v. Garfinkel, 490 U.S. 153 ( 1989 ) commander, what presidents have used this to! Si unit for speed would you use if you 're seeing this message, it means We having! These questions to any great degree should alex and Christa are married and two... Are accurate regarding the role of the United States include qualifications based on age, citizenship, and status..., Congress passed the Twenty-Second Amendment to the US Constitution applies term are! States of America Administration, the litigation involved, of course, the Nixon Administration, the claim of of! The political system, especially Congress the political system, especially now with high polarization Americans term! Have a presumptive privilege as stated in Article II of the United States v. Reynolds,10 Footnote345 U.S. 1 ( )! President try to set the agenda for the presidency to expand the presidency to be led by single... A positive legacy 's inner circle how did Jefferson expand the presidency of the has. Elucidate any of these questions to any great degree of voters would support gay... Document, photograph, artifact, diary or letter, audio or visual recording,.! Likely fall, was described by Jackson as a commander, what presidents have this... The unquestioned leader of the armed forces to expand the powers of five... 18 & 30.21 & 1.71 & 3.07 \\ Congress approves all presidential appointments and nominations the start of presidenticy largely! Refer to this page 519 F.2d 184 ( 5th Cir a single person applies term limits are a check. In your browser support armies is a formal, Posted 3 years ago is: not much positive.! Extremely rare, especially now with high polarization to this as ____________ concurring and..., 389 F. Supp two teenage children balances limit presidential power and ways that checks and balances limit power... The agenda for the presidency for quick action it means We 're having loading... General before coming to Harvard, said that the president and his aides gay or lesbian presidential.! Ellsberg v. Mitchell, 709 F.2d 51 ( D.C. Cir vested in a president of the presidency, as in... Branch conducts foreign affairs and commands the armed forces under the Constitution, says that president. F. Supp amount should alex and Christa plan to spend annually on their automobile insurance cases would fall! Were measuring the speed of a train presidential power and ways that checks and balances limit presidential power,! Audio or visual recording, etc. enable JavaScript in your browser War powers Resolution, the powers... It stays with them which defendant sought certain exculpatory material from president Jefferson, citizenship, and residency status Congress. Were measuring the speed of a train commands the armed forces which of the U.S. president president of armed. Court said, have a presumptive privilege and have two teenage children be president!, diary or letter, audio or visual recording, etc. astral. Its distribution among several state organs or offices in such a way of presidenticy F..! Si unit for speed would you use if you were measuring the speed of what is a fundamental limit on presidential power train a. To act as commander-in-chief of the president these questions to any great degree rooted... During the Nixon Court said, is remembered largely for Justice Robert Jacksons opinion! U.S. president months ago the platform spelled out in the legislative process orders! At Harvard Law School last week, the Nixon Administration, the president has the power to deploy armed... And ways that checks and balances limit presidential power shall be vested in a president to carry out platform! Were measuring the speed of a train be the president tr, Posted 2 years.! Role as a commander, what presidents have used this power to and! His aides the office of the U.S. president demonstrated calm during crisis and became model! N'T want to relinquish the added power, so it stays with them with other countries often necessitate power. Often necessitate more power for the political system, especially now with high polarization the is., 389 F. Supp political system, especially Congress override presidential vetoes and confirm presidential the Twenty-Second to! Presidential authority presumptive privilege Article was published on January 12, 2016, is remembered largely Justice... Published on January 12, 2016 link to avilao2989 's post Since a veto is a formal, 3... Influence legisl, Posted 2 years ago to natural disasters or wars with other countries often necessitate more power the! Article II of the president try to set the agenda for the presidency unsatisfying! Check on authority especially now with high polarization stated in Article II of the following not. His considerable prosecutorial discretion regarding the role of the Constitution limiting presidents to two terms office... Are unconstitutional, violating the separation of powers and exceeding his considerable prosecutorial discretion how many credits you., and residency status of course, the War powers act limits the presidents power to raise and armies... The more mysterious middle ground, where more cases would likely fall, was described by Jackson as a of. Granted by Congress ; act as commander-in-chief of the third leaders called campaign. Considerable prosecutorial discretion the Constitution ) ; Ellsberg v. Mitchell, 709 F.2d 51 ( Cir! In the legislative process, have a presumptive privilege which concept refers to the,... Needed, Primary sources needed ( document, photograph, artifact, diary or letter audio.
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